The Psychology of Learning - Classroom Management Issues

The following is a paper I wrote for my course in the psychology of learning which I took in the fall of 2006 (the paper was submitted December 14) while I was going for my Master's degree in Teaching (I obtained that degree two years later). I never actually found out what grade I got on the paper because it was the end of the term when it was submitted. But given that I got an A- in the class, I can only assume I got a good grade on the paper, for whatever that's worth. In the interest of full disclosure: my Master's Degree makes me a qualified secondary or middle school teacher. I am not, by any stretch of the imagination, an expert in educational or child psychology. Please read this article with that firmly in mind.

When considering issues of classroom management, one of the perennial conundrums of most teachers is one of discipline. Questions of what sort of discipline is appropriate, how much is too much, when discipline should be used. For centuries, teachers have had to worry about how to handle discipline issues in order to maintain adequate control of their classrooms. Effective classroom management maximizes children’s learning opportunities. (Santrock, 448) A classroom with a well maintained disciplinary system is an effective classroom. Before considering how to correct, or prevent discipline problems, it may be appropriate to consider how discipline problems are created by the teacher. In the article “How to create discipline problems” (Wasicsko & Ross, May/June1994), the authors put forward the following list of ten items which will ‘help’ the teacher to create discipline problems:

• Expect the worst from kids
• Never tell students what is expected of them
• Punish and criticize kids often
• Punish the whole class when one student misbehaves
• Never give students privileges
• Punish every misbehaviour you see
• Threaten and warn kids often
• Use the same punishment for every student
• Use school work as punishment
• Maintain personal distance from students.

While it is doubtful that any teachers ever set out to follow these ‘rules’, it is possible that some teachers inadvertently fall back on self-defeating techniques such as these out of desperation. The authors warn that doing so compromises your authority as a classroom manager, and can lead to numerous discipline problems. The above begs the question often asked by new teachers: “How does a teacher take and maintain control over a group of students who may or may not want to be there?” (Wolfgang & Kelsay Jul/Aug 95) This question becomes more urgent when one realizes that even experienced teachers are reporting that they have to spend more time on discipline issues than just a few years ago. Part of the problem facing the more experienced teachers may be that classrooms are more crowded today than they used to be. Add to that the relatively new inclusion system, and you have a recipe for chaos, unless the teacher is careful to keep an eye on things, and knows how to manage effectively. Walter Doyle (Santrock, 449) lists six issues that can lead to problems with classroom management:

1. Classrooms are multidimensional
2. Activities occur simultaneously
3. Things happen quickly
4. Events are often unpredictable
5. There is little privacy
6. Classrooms have histories

The first two items on this list are more appropriate to an elementary school setting, where different subjects are being worked on by students at the same time. You might have some students in a reading circle, while others work on math, and a third group does an art project. It is often difficult for a teacher to keep an eye on everything that is happening in the classroom at one time. Additionally (items three and four), you never know when something will happen that will disrupt the flow of your class: a child could become ill, there could be an unscheduled fire drill, or there could be a disruption from the class next door. Any of these occurrences will draw the attention of the students away from the teacher and the lesson, and remove control from the teacher. Item five is intimately related to discipline, and raises the question of how to discipline a student when you do not necessarily wish to do so in front of the rest of the class. Disciplining a student (even a light scolding) in front of his or her peers can damage the student’s self image, can cause him to form a negative image of the teacher, and can lead to further problems. The final item on the list refers to the memories of students. They do not forget situations in the past where the teacher might have over-disciplined someone, or ignored an issue that one student caused, only to discipline another student for doing the exact same thing. Avoid having ‘favourites’ among the students. Rules must apply the same to all students, or they will quickly figure it out, and take advantage of it.

This brings us to the question of why students obey rules in the first place. Wolfgang and Kelsay posit two basic reasons: fear of authority, and feelings of social responsibility. Children learn at an early age to obey authority figures. Their parents at first, and then preschool teachers, and regular teachers, and so on. They learn that if they fail to obey these people, there will be consequences. What they do not necessarily understand is how their actions impinge upon others. As children grow, they will (hopefully) learn to feel sympathy or empathy for the people around them, which leads them to the idea of social responsibility. They move from obeying rules because they have to, to obeying them because they want to.

Earlier, I touched on a list of ways to give up any pretence of maintaining discipline. But what can be done by the teacher who wants to keep things running smoothly? In the article “In good discipline, one size doesn’t fit all”(Alderman, 2001), the author emphasizes a number of points. Among them that while your rules should be clear, and known to all students, along with the consequences, dispensing those consequences should usually be done privately, or as privately as is possible given a crowded school building. It may be simple enough to remind the student that there are consequences to be considered by simply walking among the students desks and placing a hand on the shoulder of a disruptive student. This serves to remind the student that you are aware of their behaviour, and that they are being warned to desist. Alderman also recommends emphasizing the rule during a disruptive situation, rather than pointing out the problem. Mention a rule against speaking out of turn rather than pointing out to the class that student X is being disruptive. Allowing the student to hear the rule being repeated will reinforce with him or her what is and is not permitted in the classroom.

One of the last things mentioned in the article is the title “One size doesn’t fit all.” Alderman stresses that the same consequences will not always have the same effect, and it will depend on the student. Teachers need to allow themselves to use different types of consequences with different students, while still having the punishment fit the crime. Santrock (p 454) suggests that various classroom seating arrangements can assist in maintaining discipline. Teachers are encouraged to select seating styles which will allow all of the students as well as the teacher to see one another, and will also allow for the teacher to move easily around the room. Avoid situations in seating where the students have their backs to the teacher, except in situations where students are specifically required to work in small groups. If a teacher can not see a discipline problem, he can not correct the problem. Likewise, students know that if they can not see the teacher, it is likely that the teacher can not see them (and what they are up to). Margaret Metzger suggests, in the article “Learning to discipline” (Metzger, 2002), that one of the hardest things for a new teacher to do is figure out how to be an effective disciplinarian. She suggests remembering what it was like when you, the new teacher, were yourself a student. She also offers the following guidelines:

• Let students save face: maintain a few generic phrases that let everyone, teacher and student, save face. Using these saves time, lets the student know that you are aware of what is going on, and allows you to resume teaching quickly. Some that she recommends include:
  • “It’s a good thing I still like you.”
  • “Here’s the deal: I’ll pretend I didn’t see that, and you never do it again.”
  • “Consider yourself scolded.”
• Insist on the right to sanity: Take care of yourself first, or you will not be able to take care of the students in your class.
• Get help: Never be afraid to turn to other teachers, guidance counselors, or school administrators for assistance when you feel like you may be in over your head. Better that you get the help you need to fend off a discipline problem than that you let it take over your class.
• Get out of the limelight – or the line of fire: Standing at the front of the classroom and delivering lecture after lecture to your students may feel like effective teaching, but it can quickly turn some of your students off. Give them their own work to do, either individually or in small groups, and take some of the heat off of you.

So what kinds of discipline work, or are appropriate? Beginning with colonial American schools in the 16^th century (and brought to the colonies from England), one of the most often used methods of disciplining students was corporal punishment. Students would punish students by beating them with a paddle, a ruler, or some other instrument, in order to teach them a lesson. Organized opposition to this practice in the United States reached the Supreme Court in 1977 (Johns & McNaughton, 1990), when the court ruled that the administration of corporal punishment, even if excessive, did not fall under the 8^th Amendment prohibition against “cruel and unusual punishment,” even though the student in this case had needed hospitalization to cope with a swelling which developed after being hit twenty time with a paddle. As recently as 1988, the Supreme Court declined to declare corporal punishment in schools as unconstitutional, however it did give parents the right to sue school districts for administering what the court termed “grossly excessive” punishment (without defining the term “grossly excessive” in this context. But even this only applied to those states covered by the 10^th district Appeals Court, which only covers Utah, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Kansas, and Oklahoma (www.uscourts.gov). Despite this, however, a number of states (twelve by the end of 1988) as well as US territories had forbidden the use of corporal punishment in schools. Despite this, there are still a number of educators and educational administrators who favour the use of such punishments if fitting. The National Education Association has officially gone on record opposing this type of punishment, but the Ohio chapter of the organization has fought against a prohibition. For each argument for corporal punishment, there is an argument against it (Johns & McNaughton, 1990), and the discussions seem to have no end in sight. Assuming that most new teachers would not favour the corporal punishment approach to discipline, what means to teachers have at their disposal with which to handle their classrooms? One important thing to bear in mind when designing a system of consequences is to let the punishment fit the crime (Wasicsko & Ross 1994). When rewards are inappropriate, such as punishing an entire class for the misbehaviour of a few individuals (for example, the classic scenario of saying “I said if anyone talked, there would be no recess, so I guess we’re all staying in today”), frustrates those students who were behaving properly, and can lead even those well behaved ones to misbehave on the assumption that “I might as well be punished for doing something as for doing nothing.” Some research seems to indicate that punishments are most effective if they are natural consequences of an action, such as having a student clean up a mess they made, or pay for something they broke. Punishments such as writing lines, or doing extra math problems, which have nothing to do with the causes of the punishment do little or nothing to help students see the relationship between actions and consequences. However, it is not always easy to come up with an appropriate consequence. Consider the case of one student who calls another one by a bad name, or makes fun of them. What might be an appropriate consequence to such an action that could help the offender see where the problem lies? Wasicsko and Ross suggest working with the offending student to come up with a consequence that at least appears (to them) to be a valid punishment. Strictly speaking, discipline means to teach, not to punish (Chemlynski, 1996). But somewhere along the line, parents and others in authority started equating discipline and punishment. This has meant that teachers have had to get rather creative when it comes to disciplining their students. In Independence High School, of Glendale Arizona, the administration has implemented a Teen Court as an alternative to suspension. The system is designed to put the power of law and positive peer pressure into the hands of the students. Once a student has accepted the option of Teen Court, and accepted guilt for their offense, the student brings a parent to the court where evidence is heard, and a 12 member jury made of students imposes a sentence, such as community service, a seminar on alcohol or drug abuse, or service on the court itself as the punishment. In addition to being a creative and generally effective means of discipline, students involved (as jurors or ‘defendants’) are also learning about how the US judicial system functions. Positive reinforcement also works. Tavan Elementary School in Phoenix Arizona has a point system (Chemlynski, 1996). Students get one to three points when they misbehave. When they hit ten points, they have to bring a parent in to the principal’s office. If they go beyond ten, they get suspended. In contrast, students who come through a semester with zero points are rewarded with a party, certificates of achievement, and an award ceremony. Researchers from Johns Hopkins university have found that social rewards (smiling, praising, and so forth) are very effective in encouraging desirable behaviour. Of course, no discipline or punishment is necessary if you have a cooperative group of students. So how can you get your students to work with you, rather than against you? One suggestion (Santrock, 463) is to develop a positive relationship with your students. This does not necessarily mean that you want to be a friend to your students, but it means that you do want to make yourself as open and available as is possible (and practical) in your relationship with your students. Help them to realize that you do genuinely care about whether or not they actually are learning anything in your classroom. When students feel safe, and secure, and feel that they are being treated fairly, they will have less reason to act out, and to be disruptive. This does not mean that the teacher needs to give up his or her role as the ‘person in charge’. But there are ways you, as the teacher, can work with your students to create a positive environment:

• Involve your students in the planning and implementation of classroom initiatives. This engenders in them a sense of belonging, and bolsters their self-confidence when they see that you are taking their suggestions and needs seriously. Even if you can not use their suggestions, they will know that you took them seriously, and listened to what they had to say.
• Encourage students to judge their own behaviour. Rather than passing judgment on the students, or handing out punishments at the first rules infraction, ask the student to explain the rules of the classroom. This puts the responsibility for maintaining discipline on the student. Although the student might try to blame other students initially, keep focused, and they will, eventually, acknowledge that the fault is their own.
• Don’t accept excuses. Do not even have a discussion about excuses. Ignore them, and get to the core of the situation. Ask students what they can do the next time to avoid the situation. Make the responsibility theirs.

Of course, these suggestions may not have an immediate effect. Like all things, they take time. But if the students learn that you are willing to work with them, they will become willing to work with you as a result. Many educators and psychologists, including Thomas Phelan (“Classroom Discipline,” 2004) believe that getting the involvement of parents is key in creating and maintaining discipline in the classroom. Says Phelan, “The starting place is holding a back-to-school night and sending letters home at the beginning of the year. I know we have turned around some really difficult children by using [Phelan’s 1-2-3 program] at home and at school. My ideal is that the whole school is using it and a lot of parents are using it at home.” Phelan stresses the need to listen to parents as much as you listen to the students. Make clear to parents what the rules are, and what programs are being used by the school, or the teacher, to manage the classrooms. Stress to parents that you, the teacher, might not always have time to explain, over and over again, to the same students what the rules are, and that the rules program you are using takes that into account. Santrock (page 466) also suggests that being assertive, as opposed to aggressive or passive, with your students can yield positive results. Being assertive allows for the expression of feelings, allows the person to act in their own best interest, without necessarily getting in the way of anyone else’s interests. It allows the speaker to stand up for right, and to express their views openly. Assertive people insist that misbehaviour be corrected, and they, themselves, resist being manipulated or coerced. Not only teachers, but students as well should be encouraged to adopt an assertive style. Generally speaking, the majority of teachers and educational administrators today favour an assertive approach to maintaining classroom discipline. Where others might reach for the paddle, they sit down with their problem students and talk. And they talk with them, not to them. They get to know their students, and, by so doing, get to the heart of what causes their students to act up, and be disruptive. By being open and accepting rather than strict and punishing, teachers often find that they have fewer problems in class, and are able to devote more of their time to actual instruction, as opposed to discipline.

Administrative Office of the US Courts (2006) retrieved from http://www.uscourts.gov/images/CircuitMap.pdf

Alderman, T (April 2001) In good discipline, one size doesn’t fit all. Education Digest, 66(8)

Chemlynski, C (November 1996) Discipline as teaching. Education Digest, 62(3)

Counting on classroom discipline (December 2004) Curriculum Review, 44(4)

Johns, F, McNaughton, R (May 1990) Spare the rod: a continuing controversy. Clearing House, 63(9)

Metzger, M (September 2002) Learning to discipline. Phi Delta Kappan, 84(1)

Santrock, J. (2004) Educational Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill

Wasickso, M, Ross, S. (May/June 1994) How to create discipline problems. Clearing House, 67(5)

Wolfgang, C, Kelsay K. (Jul/Aug 1995) Discipline and the Social Studies Classroom, Grades K-12. Social Studies, 86(4)